chernozem: black earth
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type.

Transcaucasia—a region
that consists of the republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.
To irrigate is to water crops by bringing in water from pipes, canals, sprinklers, or other man-made means, rather than relying on rainfall alone.

drastic: likely to have a strong or far-reaching effect; radical and extreme.

thaw: (of ice, snow, or another frozen substance, such as food) become liquid or soft as a result of warming up.

resort: a place that is frequented for holidays or recreation or for a particular purpose.

Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. 

The steppe is the name of the temperate grassland that
extends from southern Ukraine through northern Kazakhstan to the
Altay Mountains.

run-off: the draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the surface of an area of land, a building or structure, etc.

Windstorm has caused a sharp increase in diseases. The incidence
of throat cancer and respiratory diseases has risen dramatically.
Dysentery, typhoid (fever), and hepatitis have also become more common.

your eyes would be so cold that
you’d close one until the one you were looking with froze, and then
swap over: change
tilt: move or cause to move into a sloping position.

topple over: to fall over.
serf: servant, slave.

persecution: mistreatment.

ritual: a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed according to a prescribed order.

spewing: expel large quantities of (something) rapidly and forcibly.

Annexation, in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.

trickle: (of a liquid) flow in a small stream.

eloquence: fluent or persuasive speaking or writing.

reed: a tall, slender-leaved plant of the grass family, which grows in water or on marshy ground.

intricately: in a very complicated or detailed manner.

elaborate: involving many carefully arranged parts or details; detailed and complicated in design and planning.

insulation: the action of insulating something, shelter.

thatch: a roof covering of straw, reeds, palm leaves, or a similar material.

A fracture is a break, usually in a bone.

straddle: sit or stand with one leg on either side of.

Geographers define an
exclave as part of a country that
is isolated from the main part and
is surrounded by foreign territory.
guerrilla: a member of a small independent group taking part in irregular fighting, typically against larger regular forces.

burden: a load, typically a heavy one.

voucher: a small printed piece of paper that entitles the holder to a discount, or that may be exchanged for goods or services, coupon.

initiative: a new attempt to achieve a goal or solve a problem, or a new method for doing this.

formidable: forbidden.

dog: follow (someone or their movements) closely and persistently.

shoddily: built, made or designed badly and with not enough care.

lethal: sufficient to cause death.

haphazardly: in a manner lacking any obvious principle of organization.

jot down: write down.

haggle: dispute or bargain persistently, especially over the cost of something.

span: length, expand.

gorge: canyon.

cataract: waterfall.

meandering: bending, curved.

distinctive: particular.

An escarpment is a steep slope with a
nearly flat plateau on top.

untapped: (of a resource) not yet exploited or used.

deplete: use up the supply or resources of.

aquifer: a body of permeable rock which can contain or transmit groundwater.

wildebeests, gazelles,

canopy: upper layer.

viper: a venomous snake.

scrape out a living: earn for a living.

Sahel means “shore of the desert” in Arabic.
trample: tread on and crush.

oil spill: oil leak.

soot: coal ash.

bandit: a robber or outlaw belonging to a gang and typically operating in an isolated or lawless area.

outmoded: out-of-date.

silt: earthy matter, fine sand, or the like carried by moving or running water and deposited as a sediment

cradle: an infant’s bed or crib, typically one mounted on rockers.

An important civilization
was Aksum, which emerged in
present-day Ethiopia in the A.D. 100s.
Its location on the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean made it an important
trading center and contributed to its
expansion and power.

stele: monument,  stele,  upright stone tablet

embroil: involve (someone) deeply in an argument, conflict, or difficult situation.

lobe: refer to ear.

Two major ethnic groups in East Africa are
the Masai and the Kikuyu.
intricate: very complicated or detailed.

loot: rob,

stem: originate in or be caused by.

Carthage

Carthage
splints: a strip of rigid material used for supporting and immobilizing a broken bone when it has been set.

haggling: bargain

thrive: (of a child, animal, or plant) grow or develop well or vigorously.

emerge: come out

lineages: parentage

bauxite: an amorphous clayey rock that is the chief commercial ore of aluminum

stool: a seat without a back or arms, typically resting on three or four legs or on a single pedestal.

terracotta is a type of ceramic pottery.

percussion: musical instruments played by striking with the hand or with a handheld or pedal-operated stick or beater, or by shaking, including drums, cymbals, xylophones, gongs, bells, and rattles.

ritual: a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed according to a prescribed order.

bounty: a sum paid for killing or capturing a person or animal.

barge: a flat-bottomed boat for carrying freight, typically on canals and rivers, either under its own power or towed by another.

captivate: attract and hold the interest and attention of; charm.

unsanitary: dirty.

shantytown: a deprived area on the outskirts of a town consisting of large numbers of crude dwellings.

implication: significance, inference.

stilt: pile

spacious: broad, vast, wide, spacious

menial: (of work) not requiring much skill and lacking prestige.

exploit: make full use of and derive benefit from (a resource).

foster: encourage or promote the development of (something, typically something regarded as good).

plight: a dangerous, difficult, or otherwise unfortunate situation.
commodity: a raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold, such as copper or coffee.

immunization: the action of making a person or animal immune to infection, typically by inoculation.

spearhead: the point of a spear.

aggravate: make (a problem, injury, or offense) worse or more serious.

afflict: (of a problem or illness) cause pain or suffering to; affect or trouble.

incumbent: (of an official or regime) currently holding office.

lieutenant: a deputy or substitute acting for a superior.

indecisive: not settling an issue.

parch: make or become dry through intense heat.

wadis are riverbeds that remain dry except during the rainy seasons.

Tumble: (typically of a person) fall suddenly, clumsily, or headlong.

beacon: a fire or light set up in a high or prominent position as a warning, signal, or celebration.

prevail: prove more powerful than opposing forces; be victorious.

In Iran, the high mountains block rain, and dry
winds increase evaporation. So when winds evaporate the moisture in
the soil, chemical salts remain, creating a salt flat.
marsh: an area of low-lying land which is flooded in wet seasons or at high tide, and typically remains waterlogged at all times.

fringe: the border or outer edges of an area or group.

mohair: the long, silky hair of the angora goat.

intensive: concentrated on a single area or subject or into a short time; very thorough or vigorous.

tow: (of a motor vehicle or boat) pull (another vehicle or boat) along with a rope, chain, or tow bar.

tow: pull

prosper: succeed in material terms; be financially successful.

qanat—a system of underground
brick-lined tunnels and wells that collect runoff
water from the mountains.

A noria—or waterwheel run by the flow of water or
by animal power—is used to lift water from the river
to the fields.
bonanza: rich ore or minerals

mingle: mix or cause to mix together.

porous: (of a rock or other material) having minute spaces or holes through which liquid or air may pass.

Crude oil pumped from the ground must be moved to a refinery.
A pilgrim (from the Latin peregrinus) is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) who is on a journey to a holy place.

Fasting During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims do not
eat or drink anything between sunrise and sunset.
The governments of lands controlled by Muslims were theocratic. This
means religious leaders control the government.
deplete: use up the supply or resources of.

funnel: guide or channel (something) through or as if through a funnel.

quota: a fixed share of something that a person or group is entitled to receive or is bound to contribute.

undermine: erode the base or foundation of (a rock formation).

scramble: to move or climb quickly but with difficulty, often using your hands to help you.

prescribe: (of a medical practitioner) advise and authorize the use of (a medicine or treatment) for someone, especially in writing.

congregation: a group of people assembled for religious worship.

lentil (a very small dried bean that is cooked and eaten )

minaret: a tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, with a balcony from which a muezzin calls Muslims to prayer.

persecute: subject (someone) to hostility and ill-treatment, especially because of their race or political or religious beliefs.

coalition: an alliance for combined action, especially a temporary alliance of political parties forming a government or of states.

straddle: sit or stand with one leg on either side of.

demonstration: the action or process of showing the existence or truth of something by giving proof or evidence.

deportation: the action of deporting a foreigner from a country.

recruite: enlist (someone) in the armed forces.

hinder: slow.

coordinate: equal in rank or importance.

jurisdiction: the official power to make legal decisions and judgments.

tectonic: relating to building or construction.

flank: the side of a person’s or animal’s body between the ribs and the hip.

Alluvial soil is one of the best soils, requiring the least water due to its high porosity. 

alluvial plains
archipelago: island group

atoll: a ring-shaped reef, island, or chain of islands formed of coral.

Timber and other forest products are another important resource in South Asia. Rain forests in India produce hardwoods like sal and teak, along with bamboo and the fragrant sandalwood.

gypsum: a soft white or gray mineral consisting of hydrated calcium sulfate.

recede: go or move back or further away from a previous position.

monsoon: seasonal wind.

wade: walk with effort through water or another liquid or viscous substance.

conch: a tropical marine mollusk with a spiral shell that may bear long projections and have a flared lip.

intense: of extreme force, degree, or strength.

corpse: a dead body, especially of a human being rather than an animal.

Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tides.

estuary: the tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.

revolt: rise in rebellion.

grant: agree to give or allow (something requested) to.

embroider: decorate (cloth) by sewing patterns on it with thread.

shawl: a piece of fabric worn by women over the shoulders or head or wrapped around a baby.

reincarnation: the rebirth of souls after death.

The caste system was the Aryan system of
social classes. Today, it remains one of the cornerstones of Hinduism. Four basic castes made
up the original system: the Brahmans (priests
and scholars), the Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), the Vaisyas (farmers and merchants), and
the Sudras (artisans and laborers).
rarity: the state or quality of being rare.

seclusion: the state of being private and away from other people.

malnutrition: lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough of the right things, or being unable to use the food that one does eat.
unscalable: not able to be scaled or climbed.

secular: denoting attitudes, activities, or other things that have no religious or spiritual basis.

topography: the arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area.

regulate: control or maintain the rate or speed of (a machine or process) so that it operates properly.

fortress-monastery
elaborate: involving many carefully arranged parts or details; detailed and complicated in design and planning.

archery: the sport or skill of shooting with a bow and arrows, especially at a target.

comprise: consist of; be made up of.

A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck, scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument. 

replenish: fill (something) up again.

destitute: without the basic necessities of life.

havoc: widespread destruction.

cede: give up (power or territory).
facilitate: make (an action or process) easy or easier.

indulge: allow oneself to enjoy the pleasure of.

bilateral: involving two parties, especially countries.

bustle: move in an energetic or noisy manner.

fortification: a defensive wall or other reinforcement built to strengthen a place against attack.

steppe: a large area of flat unforested grassland in southeastern Europe or Siberia.

pilgrimage: a pilgrim’s journey.

submerge: cause to be under water

estuary: the tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.

trawl: fish with a trawl net or seine.

vulnerable: susceptible to physical or emotional attack or harm.

wrath: extreme anger (chiefly used for humorous or rhetorical effect).

reservoir: a large natural or artificial lake used as a source of water supply.

ingenuity: the quality of being clever, original, and inventive.

lacquer: a liquid made of shellac dissolved in alcohol, or of synthetic substances, that dries to form a hard protective coating for wood, metal, etc.

pendant: a piece of jewelry that hangs from a chain worn around the neck.

Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine in which thin needles are inserted into the body. 

aviator: a pilot

fortify: provide (a place) with defensive works as protection against attack.

cavalry: (in the past) soldiers who fought on horseback.

felt: = a thick, soft cloth made from a mass of fibres) by rolling and pressing it and using hot water or a special needle.

hermit: a person living in solitude as a religious discipline.

buffer: a person or thing that prevents incompatible or antagonistic people or things from coming into contact with or harming each other.

encounter: unexpectedly experience or be faced with (something difficult or hostile).

give (someone or oneself) a different appearance in order to conceal one’s identity.

participant: a person who takes part in something.

subduction: the sideways and downward movement of the edge of a plate of the earth’s crust into the mantle beneath another plate.

trench: a long, narrow ditch.

emerge: appear.

intervention: the action or process of intervening.

distinct: recognizably different in nature from something else of a similar type.

burden: a load, typically a heavy one.

glitter: shining with a shimmering or sparkling light.

woe: great sorrow or distress.

drain: cause the water or other liquid in (something) to run out, leaving it empty, dry, or drier.

hygiene: conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease, especially through cleanliness.

equitable: fair and impartial.

demographic: relating to the structure of populations.

spew: expel large quantities of (something) rapidly and forcibly.

paddy: a field where rice is grown.

terrace: ledges, each of a series of flat areas made on a slope, used for cultivation.

inhabited: (of a person, animal, or group) live in or occupy (a place or environment).

encircling: form a circle around; surround.

An outrigger canoe has a frame, with an attached float,
extending from one side. The float helps balance the canoe.
timid: showing a lack of courage or confidence; easily frightened.

An atoll is a ringlike coral island or string of small

islands surrounding a lagoon.
unintended: not planned or meant.

distinctly: in a way that is readily distinguishable by the senses; clearly.

spectacular: beautiful in a dramatic and eye-catching way.

disturbance: the interruption of a settled and peaceful condition.

Subsistence activities are activities in which a family produces only the food,
clothing, and shelter they themselves need.
starchy: (of food or diet) containing a relatively high amount of starch.

taro: sweet potato

mulberry: a small deciduous tree with broad leaves, native to East Asia and long cultivated elsewhere.

A penal colony is a place to send prisoners.

flock: congregate or mass in a flock or large group.

referendum: a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision. public vote.

Assimilation occurs when a minority
group gives up its culture and adopts the majority group’s culture.

pastoral leases, in effect renting the land from the government.
deplete: use up the supply or resources of.